Core components of teaching at the right level

References

Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). (2022, August 11). Teaching at the Right Level to improve learning. J-PAL Evidence to Policy Case Study. https://www.povertyactionlab.org/case-study/teaching-right-level-improve-learning

Adamu, A. (2024, July 9). Enhancing Teacher Development: Peer Mentoring Initiative by TaRL Africa. https://teachingattherightlevel.org/enhancing-teacher-development-peer-mentoring-initiative-by-tarl-africa/

AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education. https://www.testingstandards.net/open-access-files.html

Aiyar, Y. (2024). Lessons in State Capacity from Delhi’s Schools. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198922667.001.0001

Aiyar, Y., & Bhattacharya, S. (2016). The Post Office Paradox: A Case Study of the Block Level Education Bureaucracy. Economic and Political Weekly, 51(11), 61–69. https://accountabilityindia.in/sites/default/files/pdf_files/The_Post_Office_Paradox.pdf

Aiyar, Y., Dongre, A. A., & Davis, V. (2015). Education Reforms, Bureaucracy and the Puzzles of Implementation: A Case Study from Bihar (IGC Working Paper No. ID 2695991). International Growth Centre. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2695991

Akyeampong, K., Andrabi, T., Banerjee, A., Banerji, R., Dynarski, R., Glennerster, R., Grantham-McGregor, S., Muralidharan, K., Piper, B., Ruto, S., Saavedra, J., Schmelkes, S., & Yoshikawa, H. (2023). 2023 Cost-effective Approaches to Improve Global Learning—What does Recent Evidence Tell Us are “Smart Buys” for Improving Learning in Low- and Middle-income Countries? FCDO, the World Bank, UNICEF, and USAID. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099420106132331608/

Andrabi, T., & Hameed, M. (2023). The political economy of implementation in the Pakistan public education ecosystem: A five-step approach to embedding a foundational learning program. University of Oxford. https://doi.org/10.25446/oxford.22435108.v1

Andrews, M., Pritchett, L., & Woolcock, M. (2017). Building state capability: Evidence, analysis, action. Oxford University Press. https://bsc.cid.harvard.edu/building-state-capability-evidence-analysis-action

Angrist, N., Beatty, A., Cullen, C., & Matsheng, M. (2024). A/B testing in education: Rapid experimentation to optimise programme cost-effectiveness (No. 2024/001; What Works Hub for Global Education Insight Note). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-WhatWorksHubforGlobalEducation-RI_2024/001

Angrist, N., Bergman, P., & Matsheng, M. (2022). Experimental evidence on learning using low-tech when school is out. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(7), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01381-z

Angrist, N., Evans, D. K., Filmer, D., Glennerster, R., Rogers, H., & Sabarwal, S. (2025). How to improve education outcomes most efficiently? A review of the evidence using a unified metric. Journal of Development Economics, 172, 103382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103382

Angrist, N., & Meager, R. (2023). Implementation matters: Generalising treatment effects in education (What Works Hub for Global Education Working Paper Series) [2023/001]. What Works Hub for Global Education. https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-WhatWorksHubforGlobalEducation-WP_2023/001

Asim, M., Bell, S., Boakye-Yiadom, M., Nudzor, H. P., & Mundy, K. (2024). Management Practices and Implementation Challenges in District Education Directorates in Ghana. Educational Administration Quarterly, 60(3), 275–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X241230527

Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart & Wilson.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

Banerjee, A., Banerji, R., Berry, J., Duflo, E., Kannan, H., Mukerji, S., Shotland, M., & Walton, M. (2017). From proof of concept to scalable policies: Challenges and solutions, with an application. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(4), 73–102. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.4.73

Banerjee, A., Banerji, R., Berry, J., Duflo, E., Kannan, H., Mukherji, S., Shotland, M., & Walton, M. (2016). Mainstreaming an effective intervention: Evidence from randomized evaluations of “Teaching at the Right Level” in India (Working Paper No. 22746). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w22746

Banerjee, A., Banerji, R., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., & Khemani, S. (2010). Pitfalls of Participatory Programs: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Education in India. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 2(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.2.1.1

Banerjee, A., Cole, S., Duflo, E., & Linden, L. (2007). Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments in India. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), 1235–1264. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.122.3.1235

Banerji, R. (2015). How do systems respond to disruptive pedagogic innovations? The case of Pratham in Bihar (RISE Working Paper Series No. 15/002). Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2015/002

Banerji, R., & Chavan, M. (2016). Improving literacy and math instruction at scale in India’s primary schools: The case of Pratham’s Read India program. Journal of Educational Change, 17(4), 453–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-016-9285-5

Banerji, R., Chavan, M., & Rane, U. (2005). Learning to read. Changing English, 12(2), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13586840500163831

Banerji, R., & Venkatachalam, B. (2023). Using Evidence to Scale Up India’s Most Promising Education Intervention: The Case of Pratham. In A. Rangarajan (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Program Design and Implementation Evaluation (pp. 541–564). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190059668.013.29

Bano, M., & Oberoi, Z. (2020). Embedding Innovation in State Systems: Lessons from Pratham in India (No. 20/058; RISE Working Paper Series). Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2020/058

Beatty, A., Büchel, K., Mukoyi, T., & Tito, R. (2024). Is seeing believing? Insights into how teacher beliefs shift after implementing the Teaching at the Right Level program. Youth Impact. https://scienceofteaching.site/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Teacher_beliefs_YouthImpact_15Dec24.pdf

Beg, S. A., Fitzpatrick, A. E., & Lucas, A. (2023). Managing to Learn (Working Paper No. 31757). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w31757

Belafi, C., Hwa, Y.-Y., & Kaffenberger, M. (2020). Building on Solid Foundations: Prioritising Universal, Early, Conceptual and Procedural Mastery of Foundational Skills [Insight Note]. https://riseprogramme.org/publications/building-solid-foundations-prioritising-universal-early-conceptual-and-procedural

Bellé, N. (2013). Experimental Evidence on the Relationship between Public Service Motivation and Job Performance. Public Administration Review, 73(1), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02621.x

Berry, J., Kannan, H., Mukherji, S., & Shotland, M. (2020). Failure of frequent assessment: An evaluation of India’s continuous and comprehensive evaluation program. Journal of Development Economics, 143, 102406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2019.102406

Besharati, N. A., Fleisch, B., & Tsotsotso, K. (2021). Interventions to improve learner achievement in South Africa: A systematic meta-analysis. In Systematic Reviews of Research in Basic Education in South Africa. African Sun Media, 27–67. https://doi.org/10.18820/9781991201157

Bieleke, M., Goetz, T., Krannich, M., Roos, A.-L., & Yanagida, T. (2023). Starting Tests With Easy Versus Difficult Tasks: Effects on Appraisals and Emotions. The Journal of Experimental Education, 91(2), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2021.1947764

Björkman Nyqvist, M., & Guariso, A. (2024). Supporting Learning In and Out of School: Experimental Evidence from India [Manuscript in preparation]. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5011870

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2010). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(1), 81–90. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/003172171009200119

Blakemore, S.-J., & Frith, U. (2005). The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education. Blackwell.

Boaler, J., & Selling, S. K. (2017). Psychological Imprisonment or Intellectual Freedom? A Longitudinal Study of Contrasting School Mathematics Approaches and Their Impacton Adults’ Lives. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(1), 78–105. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.48.1.0078

Boaler, J., Wiliam, D., & Brown, M. (2000). Students’ Experiences of Ability Grouping—Disaffection, polarisation and the construction of failure. British Educational Research Journal, 26(5), 631–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/713651583

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9853

Brown, S. A., Pitvorec, K., Ditto, C., & Kelso, C. R. (2009). Reconceiving Fidelity of Implementation: An Investigation of Elementary Whole-Number Lessons. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40(4), 363–395. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.40.4.0363

Burns, M. K., Codding, R. S., Boice, C. H., & and Lukito, G. (2010). Meta-Analysis of Acquisition and Fluency Math Interventions With Instructional and Frustration Level Skills: Evidence for a Skill-by-Treatment Interaction. School Psychology Review, 39(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2010.12087791

Cabezas, V., Cuesta, J. I., & Gallego, F. A. (2011). Effects of short-term tutoring on cognitive and non-cognitive skills: Evidence from a randomized evaluation in Chile. J-PAL Working Paper. https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/research-paper/493%20-%20short-term%20tutoring%20May2011.pdf

Cartwright, N., & Hardie, J. (2012). Evidence-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better. Oxford University Press. https://academic.oup.com/book/11611

Choppin, J., Roth McDuffie, A., Drake, C., & Davis, J. (2022). The role of instructional materials in the relationship between the official curriculum and the enacted curriculum. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 24(2), 123–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2020.1855376

Cilliers, J., Fleisch, B., Kotze, J., Mohohlwane, N., Taylor, S., & Thulare, T. (2022). Can virtual replace in-person coaching? Experimental evidence on teacher professional development and student learning. Journal of Development Economics, 155, 102815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102815

Cilliers, J., Fleisch, B., Prinsloo, C., & Taylor, S. (2020). How to improve teaching practice? An experimental comparison of centralized training and in-classroom coaching. Journal of Human Resources, 55(3), 926–962. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.55.3.0618-9538R1

Collin, J., & Smith, E. (2021). Effective Professional Development: Guidance Report. Education Endowment Foundation. https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/guidance-reports/effective-professional-development

Conn, K. M. (2017). Identifying Effective Education Interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Meta-Analysis of Impact Evaluations. Review of Educational Research, 87(5), 863–898. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317712025

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X

Curtiss Wyss, M., & Perlman Robinson, J. (2021). Improving children’s reading and math at large scale in Côte d’Ivoire: The story of scaling PEC. Center for Universal Education at Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/improving-childrens-reading-and-math-at-large-scale-in-cote-divoire/

Curtiss Wyss, M., Qargha, G. O., Arenge, G., Mukoyi, T., Elliott, M., Matsheng, M., & Clune, K. (2023). Adapting, innovating, and scaling foundational learning: Four lessons from scaling Teaching at the Right Level in Botswana. Center for Universal Education at Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/adapting-innovating-and-scaling-foundational-learning/

Damschroder, L. J., Aron, D. C., Keith, R. E., Kirsh, S. R., Alexander, J. A., & Lowery, J. C. (2009). Fostering implementation of health services research findings into practice: A consolidated framework for advancing implementation science. Implementation Science, 4(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-4-50

Dang, H.-A. H., Glewwe, P., Lee, J., & Vu, K. (2022). The Impact Evaluation of Vietnam’s Escuela Nueva (New School) Program on Students’ Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skills (No. 15005; IZA Discussion Papers). Global Labor Organization (GLO). https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/15005

Daniel, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Grills, A. (2022). The Importance of Baseline Word Reading Skills in Examining Student Response to a Multicomponent Reading Intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(4), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194211010349

Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. In Learning Policy Institute. Learning Policy Institute. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED606743

Davey, C., Hassan, S., Cartwright, N., Humphreys, M., Masset, E., Prost, A., Gough, D., Oliver, S., Bonell, C., & Hargreaves, J. (2018). Designing evaluations to provide evidence to inform action in new settings (No. 2; CEDIL Inception Paper). Centre of Excellence for Development Impact and Learning (CEDIL). https://cedilprogramme.org/publications/designing-evaluations-to-provide-evidence-to-inform-action-in-new-settings/

de Barros, A., Henry, J., & Mathenge, J. W. (2024). What Drives Teachers to Change Their Instruction? A Mixed-Methods Study from Zambia. Comparative Education Review, 68(4), 562–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/733519

de Grauwe, A., Lugaz, C., Tiberius, B., Ledoka, P. J., Tsepa, M., Kayabwe, S., & Asiimwe, W. (2011). Strengthening local actors: The path to decentralizing education: Kenya, Lesotho, Uganda. IIEP-UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000211046

Dercon, S. (2024). The Political Economy of Economic Policy Advice. Journal of African Economies, 33(Supplement_2), ii26–ii38. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejae027

Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation Practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.002

Dewey, J. (1986). Experience and Education. The Educational Forum, 50(3), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131728609335764

Dietrichson, J., Filges, T., Seerup, J. K., Klokker, R. H., Viinholt, B. C. A., Bøg, M., & Eiberg, M. (2021). Targeted school-based interventions for improving reading and mathematics for students with or at risk of academic difficulties in Grades K-6: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 17(2), e1152. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1152

Duflo, A., Kiessel, J., & Lucas, A. M. (2024). Experimental Evidence on Four Policies to Increase Learning at Scale. The Economic Journal, 134(661), 1985–2008. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueae003

Duflo, E., Berry, J., Cornell University, Mukerji, S., Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL) South Asia at IFMR, & Shotland, M. (2015). A wide angle view of learning: Evaluation of the CCE and LEP programmes in Haryana, India (No. 22; 2016th edn, 3ie Impact Evaluation Report). International Initiative for Impact Evaluation. https://doi.org/10.23846/ow41005

Duflo, E., Dupas, P., & Kremer, M. (2011). Peer Effects, Teacher Incentives, and the Impact of Tracking: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Kenya. American Economic Review, 101(5), 1739–1774. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.5.1739

Ekanem, C. E., Nakato, J. F., & Onyeibor, C. I. (2025). Strengthening teacher training and professional development in low-resource settings: A systems reform approach. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research, 7(5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.51594/ijmer.v7i5.1928

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363

Finn, J. D., Folger, J., & Cox, D. (1991). Measuring Participation among Elementary Grade Students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51(2), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164491512013

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059

Fredricks, J. A., Filsecker, M., & Lawson, M. A. (2016). Student engagement, context, and adjustment: Addressing definitional, measurement, and methodological issues. Learning and Instruction, 43, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.002

Fulmer, S. M., & Tulis, M. (2013). Changes in interest and affect during a difficult reading task: Relationships with perceived difficulty and reading fluency. Learning and Instruction, 27, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.02.001

Ganimian, A. J., & Djaker, S. (2022). How Can Developing Countries Address Heterogeneity in Students’ Preparation for School? A Review of the Challenge and Potential Solutions [Unpublished manuscript]. https://jacobsfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Learning-Variability-in-Developing-Countries.pdf

Gilligan, D. O., Karachiwalla, N., Kasirye, I., Lucas, A. M., & Neal, D. (2019). Educator Incentives and Educational Triage in Rural Primary Schools. Journal of Human Resources, 1118-9871R2. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.57.1.1118-9871R2

Gladwell, M. (2011). Outliers: The story of success. Back Bay Books Little, Brown and Company.

Glewwe, P., Kremer, M., & Moulin, S. (2009). Many Children Left Behind? Textbooks and Test Scores in Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(1), 112–135. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.1.112

Gray-Lobe, G., Keats, A., Kremer, M., Mbiti, I., & Ozier, O. (2022). Can Education be Standardized? Evidence from Kenya (Nos 2022–68; BFI Working Paper Series). Becker Friedman Institute. https://bfi.uchicago.edu/working-paper/2022-68/

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional Development and Teacher Change. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512

Hall, M. S., & Burns, M. K. (2018). Meta-analysis of targeted small-group reading interventions. Journal of School Psychology, 66, 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.11.002

Hallinan, M. T., Bottoms, E., Pallas, A. M., & Palla, A. M. (2003). Ability Grouping and Student Learning. Brookings Papers on Education Policy, 6, 95–140. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20067255

Hattie, J., & Jaeger, R. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning: A deductive approach. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050107

Hobbiss, M., Sims, S., & Allen, R. (2021). Habit formation limits growth in teacher effectiveness: A review of converging evidence from neuroscience and social science. Review of Education, 9(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3226

Hwa, Y.-Y. (2024). Opportunities for changing teacher norms vary by underlying factors in teachers’ selves, situations, standards, and society. Frontiers in Education, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1169269

Jachimowicz, J. M., Duncan, S., Weber, E. U., & Johnson, E. J. (2019). When and why defaults influence decisions: A meta-analysis of default effects. Behavioural Public Policy, 3(2), 159–186. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2018.43

J-PAL (Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab). (2022, August 11). Teaching at the Right Level to improve learning. J-PAL Evidence to Policy Case Study. https://www.povertyactionlab.org/case-study/teaching-right-level-improve-learning

Jukes, M. C. H., Mgonda, N. L., Tibenda, J. L., & Sitabkhan, Y. (2023). The role of teachers’ implicit social goals in pedagogical reforms in Tanzania. Oxford Review of Education, 49(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2022.2093178

Kaffenberger, M., & Hwa, Y.-Y. (2024). A conceptual framework for synthesis and evidence translation to improve implementation of foundational learning (No. 2024/003; WWHGE Working Paper Series). What Works Hub for Global Education. https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-WhatWorksHubforGlobalEducation-WP_2024/003

Kim, Y.-S. G., Lee, H., & Zuilkowski, S. S. (2020). Impact of Literacy Interventions on Reading Skills in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Meta-Analysis. Child Development, 91(2), 638–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13204

Kroesbergen, E. H., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics Interventions for Children with Special Educational Needs: A Meta-Analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 24(2), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325030240020501

Ladd, G. W., Birch, S. H., & Buhs, E. S. (1999). Children’s Social and Scholastic Lives in Kindergarten: Related Spheres of Influence? Child Development, 70(6), 1373–1400. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00101

Largent, T. (2025). A systematic review of the impact of ability grouping on achieving SDG4 in mathematics education. Quality Education for All, 2(1), 439–459. https://doi.org/10.1108/QEA-12-2024-0154

Lauer, P. A., Akiba, M., Wilkerson, S. B., Apthorp, H. S., Snow, D., & Martin-Glenn, M. L. (2006). Out-of-School-Time Programs: A Meta-Analysis of Effects for At-Risk Students. Review of Educational Research, 76(2), 275–313. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543076002275

Lipovsek, V., Poswell, L., Morrell, A., Pershad, D., Vromant, N., & Grindle, A. (2023). Reflections on systems practice: Implementing teaching at the right level in Zambia. In M. Faul & L. Savage (Eds), Systems Thinking in International Education and Development (pp. 27–46). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap-oa/book/9781802205930/book-part-9781802205930-12.xml

Lipsky, M. (2010). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services (30th anniversary expanded ed). Russell Sage Foundation.

Lwiza, S. S., & Sharma, V. (2025). Does ability sorting improve efficiency of low-performing students? Evidence from PISA 2022 Survey. International Journal of Process Management and Benchmarking, 20(4), 538–558. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPMB.2025.147406

Mackie, J. L. (1965). Causes and Conditions. American Philosophical Quarterly, 2(4), 245–264. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20009173

Makalela, L. (2015). Translanguaging as a vehicle for epistemic access: Cases for reading comprehension and multilingual interactions. Per Linguam: A Journal of Language Learning, 31(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.5785/31-1-628

Marinelli, C. V., Martelli, M., Praphamontripong, P., Zoccolotti, P., & Abadzi, H. (2013). Visual and linguistic factors in literacy acquisition: Instructional implications for beginning readers in low-income countries. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/16244

Marks, R. (2025). Ability-grouping in Primary Schools: Case Studies and Critical Debates. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781041053996

Maruyama, T. (2024, September 25). Iterative Process of Generating and Using Evidence to Address Learning Crisis in Madagascar: A Case from the JICA-supported “School for All” Project [Conference presentation]. What Works Hub for Global Education Annual Conference, Oxford, United Kingdom. https://www.youtube.com/live/-lup1DKDX2A?feature=shared&t=10770

Maruyama, T., & Igei, K. (2023). Scaling up Interventions to Improve Basic Reading: Evidence from Madagascar after the COVID-19 Pandemic Shock on Education (Ogata Research Institute Discussion Paper No. 4). JICA Ogata Research Institute for Peace and Development. https://www.jica.go.jp/english/jica_ri/publication/discussion/dp_04.html

Maruyama, T., & Igei, K. (2024a). Community-Wide Support for Primary Students to Improve Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Empirical Evidence from Madagascar. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 72(4), 1963–1992. https://doi.org/10.1086/726178

Maruyama, T., & Igei, K. (2024b). Developing Collective Impact to Improve Foundational Learning: Evidence from Madagascar after the Covid-19 Pandemic Shock (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4764720). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4764720

Montessori, M. (1973). The Discovery of the Child. Random House Inc.

Muralidharan, K., & Singh, A. (2020). Improving Public Sector Management at Scale? Experimental Evidence on School Governance in India (RISE Working Paper Series No. 20/056). Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2020/056

Muralidharan, K., & Singh, A. (2023). Improving schooling productivity through computer-aided instruction: Experimental evidence from Rajasthan (p. 1074085 Bytes). University of Oxford. https://doi.org/10.25446/OXFORD.24560560.V1

Muralidharan, K., Singh, A., & Ganimian, A. J. (2019). Disrupting Education? Experimental Evidence on Technology-Aided Instruction in India. American Economic Review, 109(4), 1426–1460. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20171112

Muraya, D. N., & Wairimu, E. N. (2020). Effects of teacher mentoring on the classroom practices of lower grade primary school teachers in Kwale County, Kenya. Educational Research and Reviews, 15(8), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2020.3972

Nag, S. (2007). Early reading in Kannada: The pace of acquisition of orthographic knowledge and phonemic awareness. Journal of Research in Reading, 30(1), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006.00329.x

National Reading Panel (US). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: [Reports of the subgroups]. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/smallbook

Neitzel, A. J., Lake, C., Pellegrini, M., & Slavin, R. E. (2022). A Synthesis of Quantitative Research on Programs for Struggling Readers in Elementary Schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(1), 149–179. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.379

Ngware, M. W., Ciera, J., Abuya, B. A., Oketch, M., & Mutisya, M. (2012). What explains gender gaps in maths achievement in primary schools in Kenya? London Review of Education, 10(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/14748460.2012.659059

Nickow, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Quan, V. (2024). The Promise of Tutoring for PreK–12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence. American Educational Research Journal, 61(1), 74–107. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312231208687

Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, M. C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8(3), 317–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X(83)90019-X

Perner, D. (2004). Changing teaching practices: Using curriculum differentiation to respond to students’ diversity. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000136583

Piper, B., Destefano, J., Kinyanjui, E. M., & Ong’ele, S. (2018). Scaling up successfully: Lessons from Kenya’s Tusome national literacy program. Journal of Educational Change, 19(3), 293–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-018-9325-4

Piper, B., Zuilkowski, S. S., Dubeck, M., Jepkemei, E., & King, S. J. (2018). Identifying the essential ingredients to literacy and numeracy improvement: Teacher professional development and coaching, student textbooks, and structured teachers’ guides. World Development, 106, 324–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.01.018

Popova, A., Evans, D. K., Breeding, M. E., & Arancibia, V. (2022). Teacher professional development around the world: The gap between evidence and practice. The World Bank Research Observer, 37(1), 107–136. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkab006

Pretorius, E. J. (2019). Getting it right from the start: Some cautionary notes for early reading instruction in African languages. In N. Spaull & J. Comings (Eds), Improving Early Literacy Outcomes: Curriculum, Teaching, and Assessment (pp. 63–80). Brill. https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/55194

Pritchett, L. (2015). Creating Education Systems Coherent for Learning Outcomes (RISE Working Paper Series No. 15/005). Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2015/005

Psacharopoulos, G., Rojas, C., & Velez, E. (1993). Achievement Evaluation of Colombia’s ‘Escuela Nueva’: Is Multigrade the Answer? Comparative Education Review, 37(3), 263–276. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1188512

Puzio, K., & Colby, G. T. (2013). Cooperative Learning and Literacy: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 6(4), 339–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2013.775683

Rane, U., & Tendolkar, M. (2018, March 6). Training. Teacher Training – Teaching at the Right Level Webinar Series. https://youtu.be/0Csl_U0Es9E?t=1220 (slides available at https://www.povertyactionlab.org/page/teaching-right-level-tarl-webinar-series#four)

Reese, H. W. (2011). The learning-by-doing principle. Behavioral Development Bulletin, 17(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100597

Ressler, D., de Barros, A., Aflagah, K., Kyalo, D., & Mathenge, J. (2024). Teaching at the Right Level: Learning how to improve mentoring and monitoring support to teachers at scale in African government systems [Final technical report]. GPE-KIX IDRC. https://www.gpekix.org/knowledge-repository/final-technical-report-teaching-right-level-learning-how-improve-mentoring-and

Riep, C., & Machacek, M. (2016). Schooling the poor profitably: The innovations and deprivations of Bridge International Academies in Uganda. Education International. https://www.ei-ie.org/en/item/25704:schooling-the-poor-profitably-the-innovations-and-deprivations-of-bridge-international-academies-in-uganda

Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003

Rohrbeck, C. A., Ginsburg-Block, M. D., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Miller, T. R. (2003). Peer-assisted learning interventions with elementary school students: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 240–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.240

Romero, M., & Sandefur, J. (2022). Beyond Short-Term Learning Gains: The Impact of Outsourcing Schools in Liberia After Three Years. The Economic Journal, 132(644), 1600–1619. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab087

Romero, M., Sandefur, J., & Sandholtz, W. A. (2020). Outsourcing Education: Experimental Evidence from Liberia. American Economic Review, 110(2), 364–400. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181478

Sabarwal, S., Abu-Jawdeh, M., & Kapoor, R. (2022). Teacher Beliefs: Why They Matter and What They Are. The World Bank Research Observer, 37(1), 73–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkab008

Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. https://www.routledge.com/The-Reflective-Practitioner-How-Professionals-Think-in-Action/Schon/p/book/9781857423198

Siddiqi, S. A. (2022). Contested Identities; Competing Accountabilities: The Making of a ‘Good’ Public Schoolteacher in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (No. PE02). Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-2022/PE02

Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840

Slavin, R. E. (1987). Ability Grouping and Student Achievement in Elementary Schools: A Best-Evidence Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 57(3), 293–336. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543057003293

Slavin, R. E., & Karweit, N. L. (1985). Effects of Whole Class, Ability Grouped, and Individualized Instruction on Mathematics Achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 22(3), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312022003351

Slavin, R. E., Lake, C., Chambers, B., Cheung, A., & Davis, S. (2009). Effective Reading Programs for the Elementary Grades: A Best-Evidence Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 79(4), 1391–1466. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654309341374

Stallings, J. (1980). Allocated Academic Learning Time Revisited, or Beyond Time on Task. Educational Researcher, 9(11), 11–16. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X009011011

Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What One Hundred Years of Research Says About the Effects of Ability Grouping and Acceleration on K–12 Students’ Academic Achievement: Findings of Two Second-Order Meta-Analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316675417

Stern, J., Jordan, R., Sitabkhan, Y., Ralaingita, W., Carrol, B., Betts, K., Jukes, M., Norman, J., Dubeck, P., DeStefano, J., Mejia, J., Bahrawar, L., Cummiskey, C., Jalloh, N., Pamel, J., & Momanyi, R. (2023). Numeracy at Scale: Final Report. RTI International. https://learningatscale.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Numeracy-at-Scale_Final-Report.pdf

Stern, J., Jukes, M., DeStefano, J., Mejia, J., Dubeck, P., Carrol, B., Jordan, R., Gatuyu, C., Nduku, T., Van Keuren, C., Punjabi, M., & Tufail, F. (2023). Learning at Scale: Final Report. RTI International. https://learningatscale.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Learning-at-Scale-Final-Report-.pdf

Subban, P. (2006). Differentiated Instruction: A Research Basis. International Education Journal, 7(7), 935–947. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ854351

Susanti, D., Anand, G., & Arifin, F. A. (2025). Leveraging school principals to address learning loss in Indonesia through group and individual targeting. International Journal of Educational Development, 112, 103153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2024.103153

TaRL Africa. (n.d.). Teaching at the Right Level Mentors. Retrieved 9 July 2024, from https://teachingattherightlevel.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/TaRL-Mentors.pdf

TaRL Africa. (2024). Enabling foundational learning at scale: Reflections on programmes and partnerships as TaRL Africa turns five. TaRL Africa Conference 2024.

Tenenbaum, H. R., Winstone, N. E., Leman, P. J., & Avery, R. E. (2020). How effective is peer interaction in facilitating learning? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(7), 1303–1319. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000436

Terrin, É., & Triventi, M. (2023). The Effect of School Tracking on Student Achievement and Inequality: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 93(2), 236–274. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543221100850

Tomlinson, C. A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C. M., Moon, T. R., Brimijoin, K., Conover, L. A., & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating Instruction in Response to Student Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse Classrooms: A Review of Literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27(2–3), 119–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320302700203

Vagh, S. (2012). Validating the ASER testing tools: Comparisons with reading fluency measures and the Read India measures. Unpublished report.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes (M. Cole, Trans.; Original manuscripts [ca. 1930-1934]). Harvard University Press.

Wadmare, P., Nanda, M., Sabates, R., Sunder, N., & Wadhwa, W. (2022). Understanding the accuracy of teachers’ perceptions about low achieving learners in primary schools in rural India: An empirical analysis of alignments and misalignments. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 3, 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100198

Westbrook, J., Durrani, N., Brown, R., Orr, D., Pryor, J., Boddy, J., & Salvi. (2013). Pedagogy, curriculum, teaching practices and teacher education in developing countries. (Education Rigorous Literature Review). Department for International Development. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.27180.77446

Whitehead, H., Kouassi, H. R., Yeboue, A., Tanoh, F., Hajjaj, B., Kembou, S., Wolf, S., Jasińska, K., & Ogan, A. (2025). “And then there are the realities of the field”: Teacher insights on the implementation of a targeted instruction program in rural Côte d’Ivoire. Preprint. https://osf.io/wfv9h_v1/download/?format=pdf

Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015

Willingham, D. T. (2004). Ask the Cognitive Scientist: Practice Makes Perfect—But Only If You Practice beyond the Point of Perfection. American Educator, Spring 2004. https://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/spring-2004/ask-cognitive-scientist-practice-makes-perfect

Wise, S. L., & DeMars, C. E. (2010). Examinee Noneffort and the Validity of Program Assessment Results. Educational Assessment, 15(1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627191003673216

Wolf, S., Ogan, A., Jasińska, K., Kembou, S., Cannanure, V., Whitehead, H., Corbett, J., Tanoh, F., Worstman, B., Lim, J., Zhao, H., & Kumar, A. (2025). Impacts of Targeted Instruction with Mobile-based Support on Teachers and Students in Rural Côte d’Ivoire. OSF. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/d3hg4_v2

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100.

Wood, W. (2024). Habits, Goals, and Effective Behavior Change. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 33(4), 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214241246480

Wood, W., & Rünger, D. (2016). Psychology of Habit. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 289–314. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033417

World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, USAID, FCDO, & Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (2022). The State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update. https://www.unicef.org/reports/state-global-learning-poverty-2022