Education system resilience: An evidence synthesis on supporting foundational learning amid disruptions

As climate change increases the frequency and severity of disruptions to schooling, understanding how education systems can support and recover foundational learning during and after disruptions is more urgent than ever. Disruptions do not arrive in a vacuum: they often land on systems where most children are already not acquiring foundational skills effectively. Building education system resilience to disruptions is therefore critical for addressing the broader learning crisis as well. In other words, foundational learning and climate resilience are not parallel agendas: progress on one depends increasingly on progress on the other.

This synthesis draws on evidence on how to maintain foundational learning during school closures and how to support learning recovery after schools reopen, and considers how education systems can be better prepared for supporting learning amid disruptions. The synthesis focuses on foundational reading and mathematics outcomes for primary-aged children in low- and middle-income countries.

References

Adil, F., Nazir, R., & Akhtar, M. (2022). Investigating the impact on learning outcomes through the use of EdTech during COVID-19: Evidence from an RCT in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.993265  

Alejo, A., Jenkins, R., & Yao, H. (2024). Learning losses during the COVID-19 pandemic: Understanding and addressing increased learning disparities. Future in Educational Research, 2(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/fer3.21  

Ameer, A., & Ghannam, R. (2025). Education in a changing climate: A systematic review for low and middle-income countries (LMICs). Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.70490  

Amenya, D., Fitzpatrick, R., Njeri Mvungu, E., Naylor, R., Page, E., & Riggall, A. (2021). The power of girls’ reading camps: Exploring the impact of radio lessons, peer learning, and targeted paper-based resources on girls’ remote learning in Kenya (EdTech Hub Working Paper No. 32). EdTech Hub. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4923094  

Andrabi, T., Daniels, B., & Das, J. (2023). Human capital accumulation and disasters: Evidence from the Pakistan earthquake of 2005. Journal of Human Resources, 58(4), 1057–1096. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.59.2.0520-10887R1  

Angrist, N., Ainomugisha, M., Bathena, S. P., Bergman, P., Crossley, C., Cullen, C., Letsomo, T., Matsheng, M., Panti, R. M., Sabarwal, S., & Sullivan, T. (2026). Mobile education builds resilience during shocks in five countries. Nature, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10990-x  

Angrist, N., Andrabi, T., Dercon, S., Djaker, S., Habyarimana, J., Kaffenberger, M., Leaver, C., Mangla, A., Mohohlwane, N., & Singh, A. (2026). An agenda for implementation science in education. Science, 393(6816), 1084–1087. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aee7868  

Angrist, N., Bergman, P., & Matsheng, M. (2022). Experimental evidence on learning using low-tech when school is out. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(7), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01381-z  

Angrist, N., Evans, D. K., Filmer, D., Glennerster, R., Rogers, H., & Sabarwal, S. (2025). How to improve education outcomes most efficiently? A review of the evidence using a unified metric. Journal of Development Economics, 172, 103382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103382  

Ardington, C. (2023). Funda Wande Limpopo evaluation: Second midline report. South African Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town. https://fundawande.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Limpopo-Second-Midline-Report-2023-V03.pdf  

Ardington, C., Menendez, A., & Thunde, J. (2026). The limits of a “great buy”: What rigorous evidence reveals about Teaching at the Right Level [Critical review]. AfLearn Datahub. https://dfru.uct.ac.za/aflearn/articles/2026-01-21-paper-limits-great-buy-what-rigorous-evidence-reveals-about-teaching-right-level  

Ardington, C., Wills, G., & Kotze, J. (2021). COVID-19 learning losses: Early grade reading in South Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 86, 102480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102480  

Arlini, S. M., Chefchaouni, N. C., Chia, J., Gordon, M., & Shrestha, N. (2023). Impact of catch-up clubs in conflict-affected Myanmar: A community-led remedial learning model. Journal on Education in Emergencies, 9(1), 17–63. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.33682/9t2r-vc39  

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Goldstein, M., Rasul, I., & Smurra, A. (2020). Do school closures during an epidemic have persistent effects? Evidence from Sierra Leone in the time of Ebola. J-PAL Working Paper. https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/research-paper/working-paper_720_School-Closures-During-Epidemic_Sierra-Leone_July2020.pdf  

Banerjee, A., Banerji, R., Berry, J., Duflo, E., Kannan, H., Mukherji, S., Shotland, M., & Walton, M. (2016). Mainstreaming an effective intervention: Evidence from randomized evaluations of “Teaching at the Right Level” in India (Working Paper No. 22746). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w22746  

Bhatia, K., & Leighton, M. (2024). Teachers on the move: Evidence from a large-scale learning intervention during lockdown. The Journal of Development Studies, 60(7), 1002–1020. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2024.2337381  

Brown, L. E., Kim, H. Y., Tubbs Dolan, C., Brown, A., Sklar, J., & Aber, J. L. (2023). Remedial programming and skill-targeted SEL in low-income and crisis-affected contexts: Experimental evidence from Niger. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 16(4), 583–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2022.2139785  

Burde, D., Coombes, A., De Hoop, T., Guven, O., Okhido, O., Ring, H., Rothbard, V., & Udayakumar Holla, C. (2023). Forced displacement and education: Building the evidence for what works – Evidence synthesis and intervention map [Report]. World Bank Group. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099183002142332489  

Burde, D., Guven, O., Kelcey, J., Lahmann, H., & Al-Abbadi, K. (2015). What works to promote children’s educational access, quality of learning, and wellbeing in crisis-affected contexts [Education Rigorous Literature Review]. Department for International Development. https://www.gov.uk/research-for-development-outputs/what-works-to-promote-children-s-educational-access-quality-of-learning-and-wellbeing-in-crisis-affected-contexts  

Carlana, M., & La Ferrara, E. (2021). Apart but connected: Online tutoring and student outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 3783987). Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3783987  

Chemin, M., & Schneider, J. (2025). Online tutoring reduces by half the learning loss due to school closures: Evidence from a randomized experiment in Kenya. International Journal of Educational Development, 117, 103332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2025.103332  

Crawfurd, L., Evans, D. K., Hares, S., & Sandefur, J. (2023). Live tutoring calls did not improve learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in Sierra Leone. Journal of Development Economics, 164, 103114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103114  

De Hoop, T., Ring, H., Siwach, G., Dias, P., & Tembo, G. (2025). How sustainable are learning gains after school closures? Findings from a 5-year randomized controlled trial in Zambia. American Institutes for Research. https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/2025-11/Learning-Gains-After-School-Closures-Zambia-September-2025.pdf  

Dela Cruz, N. A., Adona, A. J., Molato-Gayares, R., & Park, A. (2025). Learning loss and recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review of evidence. International Journal of Educational Development, 115, 103271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2025.103271  

Diazgranados Ferráns, S., & Thuo, B. (2026). What works and at what cost to improve foundational learning for school-aged children in conflict and protracted crisis? A meta-analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis of education interventions for school-aged children. International Journal of Educational Development, 125, 103569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2026.103569  

Diazgranados Ferráns, S., Thuo, B., & López, I. (2026). What works to improve social-emotional skills in conflict and crisis settings: Evidence from a meta-analysis of education interventions. Education and Conflict Review, 7([Whole issue]). https://doi.org/10.33682/q0p3-jc1j  

Dinarte, L., Gresham, J., Lemos, R., Patrinos, H., & Rodriguez-Ramirez, R. (2025). Investing in human capital during wartime: Experimental evidence from Ukraine (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 5492813). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5492813  

Foster, A. D., & Gehrke, E. (2017). Start what you finish! Ex ante risk and schooling investments in the presence of dynamic complementarities (No. W24041). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24041  

Garg, T., Jagnani, M., & Taraz, V. (2020). Temperature and human capital in India. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 7(6), 1113–1150. https://doi.org/10.1086/710066  

Gremley, E. (2025, September 5). Foundational learning and climate resilience: Two sides of the same coin [Blog Post: What Works Hub for Global Education]. https://www.wwhge.org/resources/foundational-learning-and-climate-resilience-two-sides-of-the-same-coin/  

Ho, J., & Thukral, H. (2009). Tuned in to student success: Assessing the impact of interactive radio instruction for the hardest-to-reach. Journal of Education for International Development, 4(2), 34–51. 

International Rescue Committee. (2018). Improving girls’ access and learning outcomes in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Evidence from a DFID-funded randomized control trial of VAS-Y Fille! [Research Brief]. IRC. 

Jensen, R. (2000). Agricultural volatility and investments in children. American Economic Review, 90(2), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.2.399  

Jordan, K., Myers, C., Damani, K., Khagame, P., Mumbi, A., & Njuguna, L. (2025). Supporting equitable access to learning via SMS in Kenya: Impact on engagement and learning outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(4), 1530–1552. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13533  

Kaffenberger, M. (2021). Modelling the long-run learning impact of the COVID-19 learning shock: Actions to (more than) mitigate loss. International Journal of Educational Development, 81, 102326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102326  

Kan, S., Dreesen, T., & Valenza, M. (2022). On call: Using mobile phones to provide learning in emergencies. UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED624512  

Kim, H. Y., Brown, L. E., Tubbs Dolan, C., Ngoga, E., Fernandes, R. F., Wu, Z., & Aber, J. L. (2026). Skill-targeted universal social and emotional learning interventions for education in conflict and crisis: Experimental impacts in Niger. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 19(3), 827–859. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2025.2591604  

Kwok, J., Sable, A., & Smiley, A. (2026). Learning through play in conflict and crisis contexts: A review of education interventions. Education and Conflict Review, 7, 139–150. 

Leigh, S. (1995). Changing times in South Africa: Remodeling interactive learning (LearnTech Case Study Series No. 8). Education Development Center. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED386153  

Makaluza, N., & Mpeta, B. (2022). Two birds with one stone: Improving Grade 1 learning outcomes using Funda Wande teaching assistants in Limpopo 2021-2022. In N. Spaull & S. Taylor (Eds), Early Grade Reading and Mathematics Interventions in South Africa. Oxford University Press. https://www.calameo.com/oxford-university-press-south-africa/read/006710753e7d90d4a4755  

Maruyama, T., & Igei, K. (2022). Community-wide support for primary students to improve basic reading and math learning: Empirical evidence from Madagascar (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4076787). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4076787  

Maruyama, T., & Igei, K. (2023). Scaling up interventions to improve basic reading: Evidence from Madagascar after the COVID-19 pandemic shock on education (Ogata Research Institute Discussion Paper No. 4). JICA Ogata Research Institute for Peace and Development. https://www.jica.go.jp/english/jica_ri/publication/discussion/dp_04.html  

OCHA. (2022). Humanitarian needs and priorities super typhoon Rai (Odette): Philippines. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/philippines-super-typhoon-rai-odette-humanitarian-needs-and-priorities-revision  

Pacitto, J., Hayat, A., Hinks, J., Parfait Emerusenge, A., Rabi, A., & Ullah, N. (2026). Remote teaching and learning in emergencies: A rapid evidence review. Education and Conflict Review, 7, 161–174. 

Patrinos, H., Vegas, E., & Carter-Rau, R. (2023). An analysis of COVID-19 student learning loss. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.013.893  

PlayMatters. (2026). Learning through play to improve teaching, learning and wellbeing in conflict and crisis: Findings from a randomized control trial in Ethiopia [Evidence Brief]. PlayMatters. 

Radhakrishnan, K., Sabarwal, S., Sharma, U., Cullen, C., Crossley, C., Letsomo, T., & Angrist, N. (2021). Remote learning: Evidence from Nepal during COVID-19 [Policy Brief]. The World Bank. 

Sabarwal, S., Marin, S. V., Spivack, M., & Ambasz, D. (2024). Choosing our future: Education for climate action. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/publication/education-for-climate-action  

Schueler, B. E., & Rodriguez-Segura, D. (2023). A cautionary tale of tutoring hard-to-reach students in Kenya. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 16(3), 442–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2022.2131661  

Singh, A., Romero, M., & Muralidharan, K. (2024). COVID-19 learning loss and recovery: Panel data evidence from India. Journal of Human Resources. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0723-13025R2  

Tobin, E., & Hieker, C. (2021). What the EdTech experience in refugee camps can teach us in times of school closure. Blended learning, modular and mobile programs are key to keeping disadvantaged learners in education. Challenges, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/challe12020019  

Tubbs Dolan, C., Kim, H. Y., Brown, L., Gjicali, K., Borsani, S., Houchaimi, S. E., & Aber, J. L. (2022). Supporting Syrian refugee children’s academic and social-emotional learning in national education systems: A cluster randomized controlled trial of nonformal remedial support and mindfulness programs in Lebanon. American Educational Research Journal, 59(3), 419–460. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312211062911  

UNICEF. (2021). Ensuring equal access to education in future crises: Findings of the new remote learning readiness index. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://data.unicef.org/resources/remote-learning-readiness-index/  

UNICEF. (2025). Learning interrupted: Global snapshot of climate-related school disruptions in 2024. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/reports/learning-interrupted-global-snapshot-2024  

UNICEF, & Hempel Foundation. (2025). Foundations first: Insights from the global foundational learning action tracker 2025. UNICEF and the Hempel Foundation. https://www.unicef.org/reports/foundations-first-2025  

Vasilakopoulou, K., & Santamouris, M. (2025). Cumulative exposure to urban heat can affect the learning capacity of students and penalize the vulnerable and low-income young population: A systematic review. PLOS Climate, 4(7), e0000618. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000618  

Verlumun Celestine, G., Talabi, F. O., Talabi, J. M., Adefemi, V. O., Bello, S. A., Oluyemi, A. A., & Destiny Apuke, O. (2022). Learning through interaction: Impact of interactive radio instructions in improving literacy skills of out-of-school children in IDP camps in Nigeria. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(3), 1058–1067. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2110124  

Webb, D. (2024). Critical periods in cognitive and socioemotional development: Evidence from weather shocks in Indonesia. The Economic Journal, 134(660), 1637–1665. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uead105  

World Bank, & UIS. (2022). Learning poverty global database. The World Bank and UNESCO Institute of Statistics. https://data360.worldbank.org/en/dataset/WB_LPGD  

Yao, H., Angrist, N., Smith, S. L., & Ananiadou, K. (2025, June 10). New data and evidence on climate-resilient education [Blog Post: What Works Hub for Global Education]. https://www.wwhge.org/resources/new-data-and-evidence-on-climate-resilient-education/