Why foundational learning matters for girls: what the evidence tells us

Madhuri Agarwal

We recently reviewed the evidence on how improving foundational learning affects future outcomes for individuals and society. One key takeaway is clear: it’s not just about getting children into school – it’s about making sure they learn as well. Our synthesis shows that better learning is linked to higher earnings, stronger economic growth, lower child mortality and reduced dropout rates. If we want education to truly deliver on its promise, then investing in learning must be a top priority.

The synthesis brief drew from 44 studies that look at the role of foundational learning on later life outcomes at the micro level. In this blog, we draw out the gender-specific findings from these studies. The studies vary in how they engage with gender:

• 16 studies disaggregate outcomes by gender,
• 8 studies report on gender-specific or gender-related outcomes,
• 14 studies include gender as a covariate in their analysis, and
• 6 studies do not report on gender at all.

This blog focuses on the 24 studies that provide some level of gender-related insight – either through disaggregated analysis or by focusing on gender-specific outcomes. By unpacking gender-related findings, we aim to offer insights that can help policymakers and practitioners ensure that educational gains are equitable for girls.

Note: This figure shows how the studies account for gender in their analysis, N=44. ‘Disaggregate outcomes by gender’ refers to studies that provide results separately for boys and girls.

How does learning affect schooling and labour market outcomes for girls?

We first present results from studies that disaggregate results on schooling and work by gender (N=16).

There is a strong association between learning and continued schooling for girls:

• In Senegal, Madagascar and China, Glick & Sahn (2010), Kaila et al. (2024) and Glewwe, Huang and Park (2017), show that early test scores are more strongly associated with later school attainment for girls than boys.
• Zuilkowski et al. (2016) show that in Kenya, poor academic performance can lead to shame and social stigma through grade repetition, particularly for girls, making it a powerful trigger for school dropout.

There exists some evidence on high wage returns to learning for girls.

• In Indonesia, Crawfurd (2024) finds higher earnings returns to foundational skills for girls (7.3%) than for boys (2.7%). The effect of foundational skills on girls’ likelihood of being employed is small but positive – around 1.4 percentage points.
• In China, Glewwe et al. (2022) find that women with higher cognitive skills in childhood are more likely to work a salary job and obtain urban ‘hukou’ (a household registration system used in China), and less likely to be married and have children by their mid- to late 20s.
• In Pakistan, Danon et al. (2024) find that the returns to foundational skill for employed women (4.8%) are similar to men’s (5.9%). However, the low female labour force participation (only 5% vs. 85% of men) makes it harder to estimate skill returns for women.

Taken together, we see that improved foundational learning in early grades plays an important role in girls’ continued school progression. Furthermore, better foundational skills can improve girls’ labour market returns to some extent.  However, studies also point to structural barriers in the labour market – such as occupational segregation and restrictive social norms – that constrain the returns women receive from cognitive skills (Glewwe et al., 2022; Yue, 2017; Campos, 2018).

Does learning affect other gender-related outcomes?

Next, we look at studies examining how foundational learning affects broader gender-related outcomes, such as fertility, women’s empowerment, financial behaviours and child health (N=8).

Improved foundational learning is linked to lower fertility and teenage childbearing, as well as greater women’s empowerment and stronger financial behaviours.

• Kaffenberger and Pritchett (2021), using data from over 50 low- and middle- income countries, find that achieving basic education (completing primary school and acquiring literacy) is associated with: a reduction of 1.24 births per woman (a 37% decrease), a 0.68 standard deviation (SD) increase in a women’s empowerment index, and a 0.9 SD increase in financial behaviours such as savings and money management.
• Evidence from both the US and the UK shows that stronger cognitive skills for girls are associated with a significantly lower risk of teenage childbearing – by about 50% in the US (Lou & Thomas, 2015) and 37% in the UK (Carneiro, Crawford & Goodman, 2007).

In low- and middle-income countries, maternal literacy has a strong association with improved child health and reduced child mortality. 

• Using a natural experiment in Nepal, increased maternal literacy leads to a decline in infant and child mortality. A 1 percentage point increase in literacy reduced infant and under-five mortality by 0.2 and 0.3 points respectively (Shrestha, 2019).
• Kaffenberger and Pritchett (2021) show that women with basic education and literacy experience 67% lower child mortality compared to those without basic education.
• In Morocco, Glewwe (1999) finds that maternal health knowledge, facilitated by foundational skills, was the primary mechanism through which education improved child health and nutrition (Glewwe, 1999).

Overall, the review finds strong evidence that investing in foundational learning has both direct benefits for girls and contributes to broader intergenerational gains that uplift families, communities and society as a whole.

Agarwal, M. 2025. Why foundational learning matters for girls: what the evidence tells us. What Works Hub for Global Education. Blog. 2025/009. https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-WhatWorksHubforGlobalEducation-BL_2025/009